天津外国语大学2026年701英语语言文学考研大纲及参考书目

　　天津外国语大学硕士研究生入学考试(初试)

　　英语语言文学专业考试大纲

　　科目代码：701

　　一、科目介绍

　　科目名称：基础英语

　　该科目是针对报考我校英语语言文学专业攻读硕士学位研究生的语言技能测试，

　　是报考该专业初试的必考专业科目。该科目的考试成绩是衡量学生是否有资格

　　进入研究生层次学习的重要依据。总分 150 分，考试时间为180分钟。

　　二、考查目标

　　此项考试旨在全面考核学生是否达到《高等学校英语专业教学大纲》所规定的

　　各项要求，考查学生综合运用各项语言知识和基本技能的能力。此科目考试重

　　点检测学生的英语基础技能，要求考生达到“高校英语专业八级”所要求的词

　　汇量、语法基础、阅读技能与写作技能。

　　三、考查范围

　　考试的范围包括高校《英语专业国家教学质量标准》所规定的内容，检测学生

　　应掌握的内容以及学习情况。

　　四、考试形式与试卷结构

　　该科目考核包括词汇、语法结构、完形填空、阅读理解和议论文写作等内容。

　　具体说明如下：

　　(一)词汇

　　考生应具备一定的词汇储备，能够熟练使用近万个英语单词，能够辨析词义，

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　　掌握近义词在意义与用法上的差异。

　　(二)语法结构

　　考生应具有扎实的英语语法基础，能够分辨出句子中出现的各种语法错误，如

　　时态、语态、语气、搭配、名词单复数等。

　　(三)完形填空

　　此项内容能够综合考核学生的语言运用能力与逻辑分析能力。要求考生结合上

　　下文，从选项中选出合适的词填入文中的空白处。考生既要有一定的词汇量也

　　要具备一定的阅读理解能力与逻辑推理能力。

　　(四)阅读理解

　　此项内容重点考核学生对文章的阅读理解及分析问题的能力。要求考生在规定

　　时间内完成一定篇目的阅读，掌握篇章的内容与细节，并能对其进行分析、判

　　断与推理。

　　(五)英语议论文写作

　　要求考生根据所给出的材料(指令)写一篇英语短文(字数按照试卷要求)。

　　做到题目精炼达意、论点鲜明、内容充实、条理清晰、结构完整、语言规范通

　　顺。

　　五、样题

　　I. Words and Phrases. (20 points)

　　Directions: Choose the one answer that best explains the underlined word or phrase in the

　　sentence. Write your answers on the ANSWER SHEET.

　　1. Readers love the stories of swindlers and their gullible

　　targets, of grifters themselves being

　　tricked, and every iteration in between.

　　A. naive

　　B. wary

　　C. sincere

　　D. shrewd

　　II. Grammatical Structures. (20points)

　　Directions: In each of the following sentences there are four underlined parts marked A, B, C

　　and D. Identify the part that is grammatically incorrect. Write the corresponding letter on the

　　ANSWER SHEET.

　　21. Hurricane Beryl has shattered (A)

　　numerous records and is a troubling (B)

　　indicator that this

　　2

　　season will be far normal (C)

　　in a world warming (D)

　　due to fossil fuel pollution.

　　III. Cloze. (30 points)

　　Directions: For each blank in the following two passages there are 4 words or phrases marked A,

　　B, C and D. Fill in each blank with a word or phrase that best fits the context. Write your answers

　　on the ANSWER SHEET.(略)

　　IV. Reading Comprehension. (50 points)

　　Directions: Below each of the following five passages, you will find some multiple-choice

　　questions. For each question, there are four suggested answers marked A, B, C and D. Select the

　　one that you think is the best answer to each of the questions. Write your answers on the ANSWER

　　SHEET. (略)

　　V. Writing. (30points)

　　Directions：

　　(The prompt may be given in Chinese or English. )

　　2024 年 10月 17日，习近平总书记考察安徽桐城市六尺巷后对当地居民和游客说，六尺

　　巷体现了先人化解矛盾的历史智慧，要发挥好中华民族讲求礼让、以和为贵的传统美德的

　　作用，营造安居乐业的和谐社会环境。

　　Write an argumentative essay in proper English of around 350 to 400 words to elaborate on Xi

　　Jinping’s observation. Your essay should have a title that conveys your message, and a well

　　focused central argument that is logically developed with discussion, explanation, examples,

　　and/or other evidence.

　　Write your essay on the ANSWER SHEET.

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　　科目代码：801

　　科目名称：英语综

　　合

　　一、科目介绍

　　该科目是为报考我校英语语言文学专业研究生初试的一门专业知识和技能综合

　　测试科目，是报考该专业初试的必考专业科目，综合评估考生是否具备攻读英

　　语相关专业硕士研究生所需的专业素养和学术潜力，总分150分，考试时间为

　　180 分钟。

　　二、考查目标

　　本科目旨在综合考查考生在英语文学、语言学与英语国家文化领域的专业基础。

　　同时，评估考生的文学作品分析、语言学与文化综合运用能力、翻译能力以及

　　学术阅读写作能力，以确定其是否具备攻读硕士研究生的专业素养。

　　三、考查范围

　　考核范围包含文学知识、语言学知识、文化知识与综合运用能力。文学知识考

　　查考生对英美文学作家、作品、流派及创作时期、主题思想、艺术特色、人物

　　形象的掌握;语言学知识考查基本概念、学者、理论及对语言现象和语言与社

　　会文化关系的理解;文化知识关注英语国家的文化习俗、社会制度、地理历史

　　等，以及跨文化交际中的语言转换能力;综合运用能力则考察翻译水平、逻辑

　　思维、语言表达及批判性思维能力。

　　四、考试形式与试卷结构

　　主要考试题型包括分析题(50分，六个分析题，考生选择两个题目作答，每题

　　25 分)、翻译题(50分，英译汉和汉译英各一题，每题25分)和概要写作(50

　　分)。具体说明如下：

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　　(一)分析题(50分)

　　考试题型包括英美文学作品分析、语言现象分析、文化现象分析，各两道题，

　　共六道。考生需选两道不同领域的题目作答。

　　1. 英美文学作品分析：围绕英美文学选读的代表性作品，要求学生简要回答作

　　品的主题思想、艺术特色、人物形象分析等方面的问题。

　　2. 语言现象分析：基于语言学基本理论，解释语言现象、语言与社会文化的关

　　系。

　　3. 文化现象分析：基于英语国家文化读本，探讨特定文化现象的内涵、背景、

　　演变、影响及社会功能等内容。

　　(二)翻译题(50分)

　　1. 英译汉(25分)：要求考生准确理解英语原文，把握其语义、语境和语用，

　　用符合汉语表达习惯的语言，准确、通顺地传达原文信息。字数约300--400

　　字。

　　2. 汉译英(25分)：要求考生能用英语准确、地道地传达汉语原文的意思，恰

　　当使用英语词汇、语法和表达方式，确保译文通顺且符合英语语言规范。字数

　　约300-- 400 字。

　　(三)概要写作(50分)

　　阅读英文学术段落，分别撰写中英文概要，归纳主要内容。要求内容切题、完

　　整、条理清楚，语法正确，语言通顺恰当。

　　五、参考书目

　　1.《新编英国文学选读》(第四版)(上、下)罗经国、阮伟主编，北京大学出

　　版社，2016年.

　　2.《美国文学选读》(第二版)，陶洁主编，北京大学出版社，2017年.

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　　3.《语言学教程》，项成东、曲莉主编，清华大学出版社，2021年.

　　4.《英译汉教程》，连淑能主编，高等教育出版社，2006年.

　　5.《汉英翻译教程》陈宏薇等编，上海外语教育出版社，2018年.

　　6. 《英语国家社会与文化入门》(第四版)(上、下)朱永涛、王立礼主编，

　　高等教育出版社，2020年.

　　7. 《学术英语写作基础教程》，朱龙、韩金龙主编，华南理工大学出版社，

　　2020 年.

　　六、样题

　　I. Essay Questions

　　Directions： Answer the following questions. Pay attention to complete content, correct

　　grammar, and accurate expression.

　　1. T.S. Eliot read The Great Gatsby three times and concluded that it was “the first step that

　　American fiction has taken since Henry James.” What’s your opinion on this comment? How do

　　the themes and writing techniques in this novel contribute to its overall impact?

　　2. What are the Four Maxims of the Cooperative Principle? Which maxim is flouted in the

　　following dialogue and what is the conversational implicature aroused? Can you explain the reason

　　for this language phenomenon with a specific principle?

　　A: Will Smith come to the party tonight?

　　B: If he comes, he comes.

　　3. Identify the major racial and ethnic groups in the United States and discuss their respective

　　status in American society.

　　II. Translation(略)

　　III. Summary writing:

　　Directions：Read an English academic text, write Chinese and English summaries in 150-200

　　words respectively, and summarize the main content. The summaries should be relevant, complete,

　　well-organized, grammatically correct, and written in smooth and appropriate language.

　　Intercultural Business Communication: The Implications ofLanguage Barriers

　　1. INTRODUCTION

　　Intercultural business transactions require the use of understandable language as a medium

　　of communication between the business entities and their potential customers/clients

　　(Bodomo and Che, 2020). Language, therefore, is a critical means of smooth business

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　　transactions (Adanlawo, 2020). According to Ai et al. (2019), language is used as a medium

　　of communication in different forms, with the purpose of accommodating or communicating

　　with all groups in business transactions. Fan et al. (2015) support that language allows

　　mankind to express opinions, views, decisions or feelings, while, it also indicates cultural

　　identities. The importance of language cannot be over-emphasized as it is the means of

　　cultural transmission as well as continuity of cultural heritage. According to Ai et al. (2019),

　　language remains the only critical means of transmitting or imparting cultural values,

　　identities/practices to the younger generations. Seemingly, Bourdieu (2004) avers that

　　language is a great asset of any tribe as it entails all the cultural identities and the realities

　　that exist in their environments.

　　Tucker (2003); Ai and Wang (2017) identify language as a symbol of identity in which

　　the speakers are proud of. Creese et al. (2008) explain that different languages come with

　　different mentality, understandings and thought in grammatical expressions of each group’s

　　language. Thus, the researchers agree that expressions of one's thoughts or ideas differs in

　　different languages, and also the language spoken by each member of a group plays

　　significant role in his interactions or relationships with others in different situations or

　　contexts. Bhatata et al. (2013) agree that grouping of different languages from different

　　geographical locations is an attempt to identify common patterns in these languages to

　　establish diversity in languages across the world.

　　Henslin (1999) in his study, reports that language is learnt by people from the

　　environment they find themselves, thus, no one is born with any language. Similarly,Ai et al.

　　(2019) concur with Heslin (1999) that people learn to acquire different languages through

　　their interactions with the speakers of the spoken languages in their immediate environment.

　　Furthermore, cultural practices, beliefs, values and identities are learnt through the spoken

　　languages among different groups. To achieve an effective intercultural business

　　communication, it is thus necessary to understand the language of a particular business

　　counterpart in order to understand their culture (Oetzel, 2017). Understanding cultural

　　differences as posited by Kumar (2014) are more than ever becoming critical as to guarantee

　　solid economic growth and sustainability.

　　Awareness of intercultural differences is a vital issue in intercultural business encounter.

　　To conduct business in an intercultural environment, there is need to consider language

　　related aspects and pay attention to specific patterns of thinking, feeling, and behavior which

　　vary across cultures (Cordano et al., 2010). Distefano and Maznevski (2000) avow that

　　language differences adversely affects relationship as people in a multicultural system tend

　　to be influenced greatly by the dominating language. This implies that others have to learn

　　and accept dominating language as a convenient medium of interaction (Kung, 2016).

　　Language differences, according to Bodomo and Che (2020) affect or influence business

　　communication as it may mars business achievement and growth. Language barrier,

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　　therefore, may be described as inability to understand or communicate with others in a

　　particular language; thereby, affecting smooth relationship or cooperation in business spaces.

　　As indicated by Ai et al. (2019), language barrier remains critical across borders and a

　　serious threat to business activities among people of different languages. One significant

　　rationale for this research was to explore the challenges that language barriers can pose to

　　smooth intercultural business transactions.

　　2. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

　　The study adopted qualitative method using exploratory approach. Reviews of previous

　　studies on language barriers have been carefully carried out to build a theoretical basis for

　　this study. The researchers engaged a secondary data collection approach by reviewing of

　　extant literature According to Kumar (2019) and Creswell (2014), the literature review is an

　　efficient method of providing a basis for any significant study, because it provides

　　information, findings and basis from related studies to a current study and analyze, argue,

　　compare and contrast existing information that can strengthen or give credibility to the

　　newly acquired information. The researchers’ personal expertise and experience were also

　　explored to generate unique, relevant workplace-based knowledge with regards to language

　　barriers to intercultural business transactions.

　　Data collection through secondary data sources which include Internet, books, reports,

　　journals, and articles were carefully accessed and classified according to the purpose and

　　aim of this study. The study made use of interpretive analysis of narrative data through

　　content analysis method which entailed coding of sources according to the study aim, the

　　codes were articulated into themes for discussion of findings (Kumar, 2019). The

　　interpretivist paradigm facilitates access to rich, detailed information which enables

　　contextual meaning through interpretations of findings (Creswell, 2014). Thus, according to

　　Braun and Clarke (2006), the data analysis followed a holistic approach to problem-solving

　　through emphasis on inductive processing.

　　3. THEORETICALFRAMEWORK/RELEVANCE

　　Shannon and Weaver theory was used to underpin this study; the theory was used to explain

　　the need for clear and understandable intercultural business communication without any

　　barrier. According to Steinberg (2007), Claude Shannon and Warren Weaver were engineers

　　working for Bell Telephone Labs in the United States. They developed a model of

　　communication which was intended to assist in developing a mathematical theory of

　　communication. Their aim was to ascertain utmost efficiency of telephone cables and radio

　　waves. Hornsey and Fielding (2020) aver that Shannon and Weaver’s model has a much

　　wider application to human communication than a purely technical one. Similarly, de Vries

　　(2020) adds that the model is the best-known example of the “informational” approach to

　　communication. This study considers Shannon and Weaver model adequate as it describes

　　the communication process from a technical point of view. Particular attention is paid to the

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　　noise source, which was altered to describe the factors that may hinder successful

　　intercultural business communication.

　　As indicated by Sapienza et al. (2016), the model consisted of five elements which are:

　　the information source, the transmitter, a channel, a receiver and a destination. Fedaghi

　　(2012) identifies noise which is the sixth element as a dysfunctional factor. The author

　　describes noise as any interference with the message which may lead to the signal received

　　being different from that sent. The theorists, Shannon and Weaver, opine that effectiveness

　　of communication can be attained when both signals for transmitters (the sender) and the

　　receiver aligned without any noise/barrier (Shannon and weaver, 1949). According to

　　Eunson (2005), model use in communication theory is to remove barriers in communication

　　for effective human interactions. Steinberg (2007) affirms that Shannon and Weaver’s model

　　focuses on removal of all noise (barriers) in communication process to attain understandable

　　communication between the sender and the receiver.

　　Figure 1: Shannon and Weaver’s model of communication

　　Adapted from Hartley & Bruckmann (2002)

　　The above model entails different components such as information source, transmitter,

　　noise source, channel, message, receiver, channel, information destination, encode and

　　decode. The emphasis of this model is to enhance effective communication (Spellerberg and

　　Fedor, 2003; Berrocal et al., 2016). The theory established “Noise” as a predominant factor

　　that can affect communication process. Dennis and Valacich (1999) aver that interference of

　　noise will cause distortion which may lead to misunderstanding between sender and receiver.

　　Noise can include psychological distractions such as negative feelings towards the speaker.

　　As opined by Soter (2016), thoughts and feelings are socio-culturally patterned, which can

　　affect communication if not properly considered. In intercultural business setting, the

　　context of “culture” is of essence. According to Manrai and Manrai (2010), culture

　　facilitates full comprehension of intercultural communication process as it covers both the

　　external (objective), internal (subjective) of individual culture which is determined by values,

　　norms and morality.

　　According to Baek and Yoon (2017), meaning can be affected by contexts such as

　　situational, social, political, cultural and historical. Hessels et al. (2019) aver that social

　　contexts have a key influence on the use of appropriate styles and contents in intercultural

　　business communication. Likewise, Berrocal et al. (2016) affirm that situational context

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　　allow us to predict expected behavior and the required interaction to meet both parties’goals.

　　According to the author, reception context does not exclusively determine meanings;

　　“writing” and “reading” contexts in a particular space and time may also affect meaning.

　　The same text can be interpreted differently within different contexts. It is worth-noting that

　　meaning only arises in the process of listeners actively making sense of what they hear

　　(Hessels et al., 2019).

　　Similarly, Chandler (2002) avers that semiotics can as well affect meaning in an

　　intercultural business transaction. The author defines semiotics as the study of signs and

　　signals, sign systems, and sign processes. Elleström (2020) claims that messages are made of

　　signs and conveyed through sign systems called codes. To derive meaning, according to

　　Elleström, the receiver of the message must understand the code. In applying semiotics to

　　visual communication, the concept of interpretation is important. Though, visual

　　communication involves other types of meaning beyond those in the intended/perceived

　　schema. Visual interpretation involves more than simple inference and for an understandable

　　meaning be reached in an intercultural business communication, Galantucci and Garrod

　　(2011) aver that a viewer must pass through both denotative (realism, representation) and

　　connotative (associations, attitudes, emotions) processes. Semiotics provides unifying

　　methods for use across culture, which include gesture, posture, dressing and speech.

　　Chandler (2002) asserts that semiotics reminds that nothing is ‘natural’ about our values;

　　they are social constructs that changes with time but differ radically from culture to culture.

　　In order for effective communication to be attained, the concept of culture has to be

　　considered. The intended message of the sender must be well understood by the receiver and

　　both the sender and receiver must agree that the message has been understood in its intended

　　meaning. Shannon and Weaver submit in their theory that message can be distorted by noise

　　or any other disturbance; which this study classifies as barriers in intercultural business

　　communication. This theory is necessary in understanding barriers that can affect effective

　　intercultural business communication, and also why communication in such intercultural

　　contexts can be misunderstood by both the sender and the receiver (Quintanilla and Wahl,

　　2011). Therefore, it is imperative to understand clearly the message, so as to give feedback

　　that can be understood in same precise context. Hartley and Bruckmann, (2002) postulate

　　that engagement of this mechanism enhances the concept of feedback, which is important to

　　communication. Seemingly, Seiler and Beall (2011) affirm that the clarity of the message is

　　significant to understandable feedback as intended by the sender. Hence, communication in

　　intercultural business transaction attracts feedback that is influenced by the level of

　　understanding of the message by the receiver.

　　To receive a suitable feedback, Reddy and Adanlawo (2018), Romero-Trillo (2019)

　　aver that the non-verbal behavior of the sender must reflect the actual meaning of the

　　message. Thus, non-verbal communication can function to express meaning strengthening,

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　　replacing, or opposing the verbal message (Andersen, 1999). Hence, non-verbal

　　communication can be used in influencing others as well as to check conversational flow of

　　messages (Ntuli, 2012). It is established that non-verbal behaviors of people involved in

　　intercultural business activities can influence both the message from the sender and the

　　feedback from the receiver and thus, affect their business relationships. Unfortunately,

　　Shannon and Weaver model does not give room for relationships between people as

　　communicators. The model is linear, it assigns secondary role to receiver. The original

　　model had no provision for feedback, though, later added by other theorists.

　　4. LANGUAGE AS THE MAIN BARRIER TO INTERCULTURAL BUSINESS

　　COMMUNICATION

　　Communication is important in business, most especially intercultural business transactions.

　　Kecskes (2015) recommends that parties involved in intercultural business communication

　　should agree on a common language that can be understood and that can also ensure

　　fulfilment of business goals. Ai et al. (2019) assert that communication in intercultural

　　business has always been faced with the problem of common language. This implies why

　　language has been established as a main barrier to intercultural business transactions across

　　the globe (Bodomo and Che, 2020). Language as a significant barrier in business across

　　borders manifests in different aspects or phases of intercultural business activities; which

　　include business strategy, structure, and techniques. Studies (Bodomo and Che, 2020; Ai, et

　　al., 2019; Wang et al., 2018; Tam et al., 2016) agree that failure of some intercultural

　　business revolves round the lack of intercultural skills and competence, the inability to

　　communicate effectively in a global setting, and the failure to apply appropriate manners in

　　business communication. This implies that business across borders, must appreciate and

　　acknowledge cultural differences. To reach a mutual understanding,

　　People’s cultural identities and heritage must be respected in intercultural business

　　dealings. Bassnett (2003) asserts that every language is a cultural product of any group of

　　people, and it strongly links to their culture. Language, therefore, is very important to every

　　society. Seemingly, Shah (2004) opines that differences in language limit many business

　　transactions across borders, thereby, leads to misunderstanding and inappropriate feedback.

　　5. CAUSES OFLANGUAGEBARRIERS

　　These factors have been identified as causes of language barriers:

　　5.1 Difference in language

　　Language is used to express or communicate ideas, feelings, opinions, and decisions to

　　others in meaningful contexts that can be responded to (Bodomo and Che, 2020). As much

　　as language can facilitate smooth business transactions, it can also be a serious barrier when

　　there is no understanding among the parties. For example, business transactions between the

　　people of Nigeria and China, or between South Africans and Japanese involves the use of a

　　common language which is understood by both groups. It therefore, becomes a language

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　　problem when one of the parties cannot understand or respond in a language spoken by the

　　other (Djite, 2020). According to Djite (2020), difference in language can be a critical

　　challenge to business success when people find it difficult to understand themselves in order

　　to reach agreement in business transactions. This explains why interpreters are usually

　　involved in business transactions that involve individuals of different languages. Ai et al

　　(2019) identify this reason for the employment of bilingual employees by Chinese to expand

　　their businesses in Africa nations.

　　5.2 Regional Accents, Dialects and Lingo

　　Djite (2020) explains that language differences exist due to regional accents, dialects and

　　lingo among people who reside in same geographical areas. People speak languages that

　　indicate their accents and dialects which showcase their cultural identities (Bhatara et al.,

　　2013). The languages sometimes may be technically the same with people speaking same

　　language in different dialects and accents; however, the meanings and interpretations of

　　words/messages are different, these differences may result in some kinds of

　　misunderstandings in international business transactions (Chow and Schoenbaum, 2020).

　　For example, if a Scottish businessman communicates with a British, they both have some

　　words which have different meanings; though, they both communicate in English.

　　A word such as ham and bacon are used interchangeably in Scotland, but mean

　　different things in London. Likewise, lingo is an abridged word in a language used between

　　people with different languages. This implies that certain words and phrases can have

　　different meanings. However, this same language may be interpreted differently in

　　intercultural business transactions. Seemingly, Ai et al. (2019) aver that differences in

　　accents, dialects and other regional peculiarities remain language barriers to effective

　　communication among Africans and Chinese people during business transactions. Also,

　　Charles and Marscan-Piekkari (2002) assert that differences in accents present an additional

　　challenge for oral communication over written communication as high-context

　　communication is mostly adopted in intercultural business transactions. Nations such as

　　China, Japan and North Korea are more likely to prefer communication via e-mails than

　　phone calls as they will respond to e-mails at their own pace.

　　5.3 No Clear Speech

　　Language barrier may hinder intercultural business transactions especially when people

　　speak in soft or in a low voice (Bhatia, 2014). Speaking in soft or low voice may lead to

　　unclear speech, which may invariably result in misunderstanding between the parties in

　　business communication. Bodomo and Che (2019) affirm that speaking common language

　　does not rule out unclear speech among people; speaking in low or soft voice may as well

　　lead to unclear speech which will hinder meaningful understanding. Unclear speech during

　　communication will hinder effective intercultural business activities across borders

　　(Vigouroux and Mufwene, 2020;Ai et al, 2019).

　　12

　　5.4 Use of Jargons and Slang

　　Jargons may be described as technical words that are peculiar to certain people. Because

　　they are peculiar to certain people or professions, jargons may be interpreted differently at

　　different times by different people. Jargons, such as medical terms used by those in medical

　　profession or legal terms used by those in legal profession cannot be used in the same

　　contexts outside the professions as the intended meaning will not be understood. According

　　to Vigouroux and Mufwene (2020), business transactions have some business terms that

　　must be clearly understood by all parties; especially, intercultural business where languages

　　differ. Understanding business terms will generate appropriate feedbacks. Similarly, the use

　　of slangs in intercultural business communication can lead to ineffective communication.

　　Bodomo and Che (2020) aver that the use of appropriate language in business

　　communication strengthens relationships and ensures successful business transactions across

　　borders.

　　5.5 Word Choice

　　Business communication allows choice of words. However, cultural differences and respect

　　for foreign counterparts must be considered in the use of words during intercultural

　　communication. Bodomo and Che (2020) advice against the use of words which can be

　　sarcasm in business communication as it can be taken as negative in nature. Therefore, use

　　of words which can be interpreted with different meanings such as homonyms, homographs,

　　homophones should be avoided in business communication to avoid misinterpretation or

　　misunderstandings of words. The use of words with different meanings will not present the

　　message as intended to the receiver and this is a common language barrier in intercultural

　　business communication (Chow and Schoenbaum, 2020).

　　5.6 Literacy and Linguistic Ability

　　Construction of words in business communication depends on the competency level of both

　　the sender and the receiver (Ai et al., 2020). According to Chow and Schoenbaum (2020),

　　communication in business transactions across borders involve the use of low vocabulary in

　　a particular language and very high vocabulary in different situations. Andersen and

　　Rasmussen (2004) posit that literacy and education of parties involved in business

　　communication determine how they communicate and also enhance their business

　　vocabulary. Charles and Marschan-Piekkar (2002) avers that linguistic improves person

　　capability to communicate effectively in a particular language with others. Thus, a person

　　with high vocabulary and linguistic ability is able to communicate and negotiate business

　　across border with others with low ability, although, people with low vocabulary may find it

　　difficult to understand the words used by high vocabulary person. An exception to this is

　　when low vocabulary is used for better understanding, otherwise, language barriers may

　　arise which will lead to misunderstanding in the business transactions.

　　5.7 Grammar and Spelling

　　13

　　Grammatical expressions and spelling in intercultural business communication may become

　　barriers to people from different parts of the world when using certain words differently

　　(Luo and Shenkar, 2006). Grammar and spelling mistakes can create serious communication

　　barrier in written communication. For example, in a business communication, typing done as

　　don, will change the whole meaning of the sentence. Wrong use of metaphors or similes can

　　hinder effective communication (Luo and Shenkar, 2006). As indicated by Barner

　　Rasmussen and Aarnio (2011), language barriers can deny business communication from

　　being a productive and effective transaction. This implies that communication will be

　　severed and business objectives will be unachievable (Lockwood,2015). However, language

　　barriers in business communication can be avoided or minimized through translation,

　　interpreter, language classes, and visual methods (Harzing et al., 2011). Chow and

　　Schoenbaum (2020) postulate that for smooth intercultural business transactions to be

　　ensured, barriers relating to language must be avoided at all cost

　　6. POSSIBLE SOLUTIONSTO LANGUAGEBARRIERS

　　Language barriers can be avoided or minimized in intercultural business transactions if the

　　following strategies are adopted:

　　6.1 Repetition

　　Repetition can be encouraged between sender and receiver in oral business communication

　　for clarity of messages that are unclear. Partners can be asked to repeat words or statements

　　for clear understanding. You can ask your business clients in an intercultural business

　　transaction to repeat what is said, or provide illustrative examples for clear understanding

　　(Levin, 2005).

　　6.2 Code-switching

　　Code-switching enables second language users to communicate with others in their native

　　language. Chow and Schoenbaum (2020) assert that code-switching enhances business

　　transactions for parties who are able to code-switch between two languages when transacting

　　business. In Harzing and Feely (2008) view, code switching can lead to exasperation,

　　uneasiness and suspicion when the other party does not understand the switch language.

　　6.3 Machine Translation (MT) and Machine Interpretation (MI)

　　Machine transmission is another practical solution for written communications. According to

　　Gu et al. (2018), this portable translation machine is mostly usable in a situation where the

　　parties involved in intercultural business communication do not understand each other’s

　　language. Kumano et al. (2002) describe machine translation system as “a system” which

　　includes a database for storing various information, database management section for

　　performing database management, a bilingual correspondence data record subsystem for

　　performing recording/learning processing of translation examples, a translation subsystem

　　for performing translation processing, and dictionary management for performing dictionary

　　management and database transmission/reception processing. Mikolov et al. (2013) assert

　　14

　　that MT is cost effective in business transactions, for most translation objective is to extract

　　information from the source text and communicate the information into a target text in a

　　second language. According to Tarditi Jr et al. (2009), machine interpreter (MI) is a recent

　　machine translation kernel with a speech-recognition front-end (in the source language) and

　　a post-translation speech generation module (in the target language).

　　6.4 External translators or interpreters

　　External translators or interpreters could be used to curb language barriers that could hinder

　　effective intercultural business communication. External translators are primarily used for

　　significant documents, like, to translate, and interpret technical languages because of the

　　high cost of engaging the service of the professional ones (Harzing et al., 2011) External

　　translators are valuable to business transactions that cut across borders (Yoshihara et al.,

　　2002).

　　6.5 Language training

　　Language training is considered by many business organizations as an important strategy to

　　overcoming language barriers (Yoshihara et al., 2012). The researchers are of the opinion

　　that if business organization representatives across the borders are well trained in the art of

　　language and conversation, it will reduce the challenges that language could pose in

　　intercultural business encounters.

　　6.6 Bilingual employees as intermediaries or translation machines

　　Business organization that transacts business across borders should consider hiring

　　employees that are able to speak different languages as connecting pins to their business

　　associates in foreign countries. This could serve as a way to avoid language barriers. These

　　employees would act as communication nodes for the business organization.

　　6.7 Locally hired non-native personnel

　　To reduce language barriers in intercultural business, it is advisable that business

　　organizations should hire local non-native personnel for effective business transactions.

　　These non-native personnel will be residents in the host country. They are locally hired and

　　not expatriates. For example, a residing South African in Japan could be hired by South

　　African company when transacting business in Japan to ease language difficulties. The

　　familiarization of these locally hired personnel with cultures and languages of the both

　　nations make them perfect to act as intermediaries.

　　7. CONCLUSIONS

　　This discursive study explored language barriers as a significant hindrance to effective

　　intercultural business transactions. The study emphasis that language barriers slow down

　　business processes, incurring additional cost and can invariably leads to loss of business

　　partners. Ineffective communication, cultural incompatibility between local business

　　organizations and foreign counterparts are believed to be significant barriers to successful

　　intercultural business transactions, more especially, when both parties come from different

　　15

　　backgrounds and speak different languages. Language difficulty hinders effective

　　communication, relationship and adherence to business strategies. Language barriers,

　　therefore, can frustrate or limit business transactions across the borders. As discussed in this

　　study, language problems are common due to inability of most businessmen to understand

　　the language of their host business partners in foreign land. Poor and improper

　　communication could as well obstruct business transactions and invariably leads to

　　misunderstanding which can severely affect business relationship (Adanlawo and Rugbeer,

　　2019). Inability to communicate effectively in a business-related communication across

　　borders can have negative consequences on businesses. The mentioned communicative and

　　behavioral abilities presented in the theoretical relevance in our opinion should help to

　　systematize the process of viable intercultural business communication, to establish

　　productive contact with foreign partners, to achieve mutual understanding, and to find

　　acceptable ways of organizing interaction and cooperation.

　　8. RECOMMENDATIONS

　　Questions should be asked repeatedly whenever message communicated is not clear or well

　　understood. It should be noted by the parties that ‘No crime in asking’. To attain an effective

　　intercultural business communication, messages not clear should be asked to be repeated for

　　clarification.

　　Multi-lingual employees should be employed by business organizations that indulge in

　　businesses across borders. Employees that are able to speak different languages will be able

　　to negotiate on behalf of their employers in a community/country where the language and

　　culture are understood with no extra cost. This will help to alleviate the cost of incurring an

　　interpreter for business transaction across the borders.

　　Business organizations should organize training on languages and cultural appreciation for

　　their expatriate employees. Short courses and training on languages and culture will help in

　　reducing the barriers that language might infringe on intercultural business transactions.

　　These training will introduce the employees to the custom and norms of the nationals they

　　intend to transact business with. Through regular trainings, employees will be exposed to

　　cultural issues that can make them appreciate and respect the customs and norms of their

　　host business partners.

　　There is a need to create a model of intercultural business communication that will identify

　　the nature of intercultural interaction, necessary communicative and behavioral

　　skills/competence toward effective intercultural business communication. Future research

　　could focus on primary research on challenges faced by business organizations in non

　　English speaking countries and as well on how language differences affect business across

　　borders especially in different context communication cultures (High context culture and

　　Low context culture).

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